High Court of Australia

(1989) 166 CLR 518 .

(1991) 172 CLR 460 .

(1994) 181 CLR 18 .

See Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 570 per Brennan and Toohey JJ; cf Re Aird; ; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 321-322 [36]-[37].

(2004) 220 CLR 308 at 321-322 [36]-[37].

395 US 258 (1969).

483 US 435 (1987).

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 570.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 543.

[1992] 1 SCR 259 at 294.

R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254 .

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 572.

Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, (Melbourne), 10 March 1898 at 2255.

Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, (Melbourne), 10 March 1898 at 2259.

Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 572.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 539-543 and 554-563.

483 US 435 at 444 (1987).

483 US 435 at 445 fn 10 (1987).

483 US 435 at 441 (1987).

483 US 435 at 441 (1987).

483 US 435 at 441 (1987).

The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, 2nd ed (1910) at 316-317.

Thayer's Leading Cases in Constitutional Law.

Moore, The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, 2nd ed (1910) at 321.

(1999) 199 CLR 462 .

(1945) 71 CLR 1 at 23.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 .

(1945) 71 CLR 1 at 23.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 467.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 467-468.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 573-574.

See Re Nolan; ; Ex parte Young (1991) 172 CLR 460 ; Re Tyler; ; Ex parte Foley (1994) 181 CLR 18 .

Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 581-592.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 587.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 589.

(1991) 172 CLR 460 at 489.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 589.

Re Nolan; ; Ex parte Young (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 489.

Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 592.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 568.

Davis, A Treatise on the Military Law of the United States, 3rd rev ed (1915) at 437.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 568.

Section 190 was cast in broader terms at the time when what were then subss (3) and (5) were held invalid in Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 . These provisions were removed by the Defence Legislation Amendment Act 2003 (Cth), Sch 1, Items 42, 43.

Groves v The Commonwealth (1982) 150 CLR 113 at 125-126.

A v Hayden (1984) 156 CLR 532 .

Grant v Sir Charles Gould (1792) 2 H Bl 69 at 100 per Lord Loughborough [ 126 ER 434 at 450].

Dynes v Hoover 61 US 65 at 83 (1857).

(1982) 150 CLR 113 . In their joint judgment (at 134), Stephen, Mason, Aickin and Wilson JJ put to one side the position of defence members engaged in combatant duties in time of war or in training for such activities.

See Hembury v Chief of the General Staff (1998) 193 CLR 641 .

(1954) 90 CLR 353 .

(1954) 90 CLR 353 at 380-381.

(1954) 90 CLR 353 at 381-382.

(1954) 90 CLR 353 at 382.

(1977) 138 CLR 1 at 11.

Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 463.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 466.

In Huddart, Parker & Co Pty Ltd v Moorehead (1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 466.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 467.

61 US 65 (1857).

61 US 65 at 79 (1857).

Army Act 1881 (Imp), s 41.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 541-543.

29 & 30 Vict c 109.

44 & 45 Vict c 58.

51 & 52 Vict c 32. See Quick and Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth, (1901) at 116-117; Todd, Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies, 2nd ed (1894) at 401-403.

Quick and Garran, The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth, (1901) at 117-119; Todd, Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies, 2nd ed (1894) at 396-401.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 561-562.

(1945) 71 CLR 1 .

cf Re Nolan; ; Ex parte Young (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 497.

(1954) 90 CLR 353 at 380-381.

(1991) 172 CLR 460 .

(1994) 181 CLR 18 .

R v Patton, Caldwell and Robinson [1998] 1 VR 7 at 21-22.

Crimes Act 1958 (Vic), s 31; Sentencing and Other Acts (Amendment) Act 1997 (Vic), s 60 and Sch 1, Item 16.

Crimes Act 1958 (Vic), ss 2B, 39.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 591.

(1991) 172 CLR 460 at 499.

(1994) 181 CLR 18 at 34.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 603-604.

(1994) 181 CLR 18 at 35 (emphasis added).

(1994) 181 CLR 18 at 38-39.

Vol 25, para 79.

(1964) 111 CLR 549 at 573. In similar vein, the article contributed by Judge Babington to The Oxford Companion to Military History, Holmes (ed), (2001) at 233, defines "courts martial" as:

[t]ribunals that enforce the special laws and standards of conduct expected of soldiers, once more lax but now in general more strict than the civil courts governing non-military personnel.

cf Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 591 and 603-604.

(2004) 220 CLR 308 at 323-324 [40]-[42].

Hembury v Chief of the General Staff (1998) 193 CLR 641 at 657 [44]-[45], and see also at 669-670 [72]; Re Aird; ; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 326 [57].

Constitution, s 71.

cf Bank of NSW v The Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1 , affirmed (1949) 79 CLR 497 ; [1950] AC 235 ; Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 193.

cf New South Wales v Commonwealth (2006) 81 ALJR 34 at 168 [615]; 231 ALR 1 at 165; Forge v Australian Securities and Investments Commission (2006) 80 ALJR 1606 at 1658 [218]; 229 ALR 223 at 286; Attorney-General (Vic) v Andrews (2007) 81 ALJR 729 at 758 [164]; 233 ALR 389 at 427.

Reasons of Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ ("joint reasons") at [60].

As defined in the Act, s 3(1).

The Act, s 3(1). See also s 3(4).

As defined in the Act, s 3(1).

As defined in the Act, s 3(1).

As defined in the Act, s 3(1).

Under s 103(1)(c) and (d). The jurisdiction of the Defence Force magistrate is provided by the Act, s 129. See also s 135. Trial by courts martial is provided for by the Act, s 132.

Crimes Act 1900 (ACT), s 60(1).

Defence Legislation Amendment Act 2006 (Cth), Sch 1, items 9 and 11, inserting in the Act Pt VII, Div 4 ("Military jury") (ss 122-124) to provide for trial by the proposed Australian Military Court.

The Act, s 61 and the definition of "Territory offence" in s 3(1) of the Act.

The Act, s 103. The Director of Public Prosecutions of the Commonwealth is established by the Director of Public Prosecutions Act 1983 (Cth), ss 5 and 18.

As to the categories of courts martial and service tribunals established by the Act, see the reasons of Callinan J at [225]-[231].

The Act, s 114.

The Act, s 116(1).

The Act, s 117.

Appointed under the Act, s 188FB.

The Act, s 119 ("Convening order"). All members of courts martial must be chosen by the Registrar from persons nominated by the Judge Advocate General who is appointed under the Act, s 179 and who must be a judge: s 180(1). See also s 129B.

Mack and Anleu, "The Security of Tenure of Australian Magistrates", (2006) 30 Melbourne University Law Review 370.

As are the judiciary of Ch III courts, including Federal Magistrates. See Federal Magistrates Act 1999 (Cth), s 9 and Sch 1, Item 1(1).

The Act, s 127(1).

The Act, s 127(2).

The Act, s 3(1), definition of "officer".

Federal Magistrates Act 1999 (Cth), s 9 and Sch 1, item 1(4).

The Act, s 196(2A).

The Act, s 196(2B).

cf Forge (2006) 80 ALJR 1606 at 1659 [220]; 229 ALR 223 at 287.

The Act, s 196(4), Sch 5. See eg the Schedule to the Federal Court of Australia Act 1976 (Cth).

The Act, s 144.

The Act, s 63(1).

The Act, s 103.

The Act, s 190.

The Act, s 144.

Under the Act, s 61.

The Act, Pt III ("Offences"), Div 1.

Pt III, Div 2.

Pt III, Div 3.

Pt III, Div 4.

Pt III, Div 5 A.

Pt III, Divs 6 and 7.

The Act, Pt VI.

The Act, s 70.

The Act, s 71.

The Act, ss 15, 15A, 15D, 15E, 15F, 15G, 16 and 16 A.

The Act, s 15B ("Aiding the enemy while captured"); s 15C ("Providing the enemy with material assistance"); s 16B ("Offence committed with intent to assist the enemy"); s 20 ("Mutiny").

The Act, s 61(4).

Crimes Act 1900 (ACT), s 60 as applied to the Jervis Bay Territory.

See eg Kingswell v R (1985) 159 CLR 264 at 318-319; Re Colina; ; Ex parte Torney (1999) 200 CLR 386 at 421-422 [92]-[95].

Joint reasons at [42].

Constitution, s 75(v).

Joint reasons at [45], [58].

Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners' Assn (1908) 6 CLR 309 at 367-368; R v Public Vehicles Licensing Appeal Tribunal (Tas); Ex parte Australian National Airways Pty Ltd (1964) 113 CLR 207 at 225; cf McCulloch v Maryland 17 US (4 Wheat) 316 at 406-407 (1819) per Marshall CJ.

(1951) 83 CLR 1 at 141.

cf Farey v Burvett (1916) 21 CLR 433 at 441; R v Foster; Ex parte Rural Bank of NSW (1949) 79 CLR 43 at 81-82.

Lamshed v Lake (1958) 99 CLR 132 at 154; cf Re Governor, Goulburn Correctional Centre; ; Ex parte Eastman (1999) 200 CLR 322 at 373-374 [131]-[132]; New South Wales v Commonwealth (2006) 81 ALJR 34 at 140 [469]; 231 ALR 1 at 127.

Bank of NSW v The Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1 at 185 per Latham CJ.

Johnston Fear & Kingham & The Offset Printing Co Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 314 at 317-318 325 and 331.

Gratwick v Johnson (1945) 70 CLR 1 at 10-11.

cf Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v The Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 116 at 129 132 149 155 and 159-160.

That is, six offences under the applied Territory provision, each carrying a maximum sentence of five years.

The test of necessity and obviousness is normally observed by this Court in deriving constitutional implications. See eg Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106 at 133-138 per Mason CJ.

R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254 .

Attorney-General of the Commonwealth v R (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 539 ; [1957] AC 288 .

(1957) 95 CLR 529 at 539; [1957] AC 288 at 314 per Viscount Simonds, delivering the judgment of the Board.

Mitchell and Voon, "Defence of the Indefensible? Reassessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia", (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 499.

(1909) 8 CLR 330 at 357. See also Harrington v Lowe (1996) 190 CLR 311 at 325 per Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey, Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ.

In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 267.

Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 443 and 464.

Shell Co of Australia Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1930) 44 CLR 530 at 543 ; [1931] AC 275 at 295-296; Rola Co (Australia) Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth (1944) 69 CLR 185 at 198-199.

Cominos v Cominos (1972) 127 CLR 588 at 605 and 608; R v Hegarty; Ex parte City of Salisbury (1981) 147 CLR 617 at 627.

The Act, s 172(1).

The Act, s 171(1).

The Act, s 174(1).

Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 537-540 per Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ.

See s 61(2) and (3); cf s 3(1) definition of "defence member".

Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 540.

Ruhani v Director of Police (2005) 222 CLR 489 .

eg R v Spicer; Ex parte Australian Builders' Labourers' Federation (1957) 100 CLR 277 at 305 per Kitto J; Harris v Caladine (1991) 172 CLR 84 at 122.

cf Ratnapala, Australian Constitutional Law: Foundations and Theory, 2nd ed (2007) at 136-137; Albarran v Members of the Companies Auditors and Liquidators Disciplinary Board [2007] HCA 23 at [70]; Visnic v Australian Securities and Investments Commission [2007] HCA 24 at [41]-[42].

(1956) 94 CLR 254 .

Starting with the dissents of Williams J, Webb J and Taylor J in the Boilermakers' Case (1956) 94 CLR 254 , see esp 302, 306, 314, 315, 317. That decision was later criticised by Barwick CJ in R v Joske; Ex parte Australian Building Construction Employees & Builders' Labourers' Federation (1974) 130 CLR 87 at 90.

Ruhani (2005) 222 CLR 489 at 530 [119], 578 [298]; cf at 546 [177].

New South Wales v The Commonwealth (1915) 20 CLR 34 .

J W Alexander (1918) 25 CLR 434 at 450 457 461 467 and 489.

British Imperial Oil Co Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1925) 35 CLR 422 .

Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) (1996) 189 CLR 51 .

In re Judiciary and Navigation Acts (1921) 29 CLR 257 at 266-267.

Opened for signature 16 December 1966; 999 UNTS 171 ; [1980] ATS 23 ; cf Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 348-350 [126]-[133].

cf Abadee, A Study into Judicial System Under the Defence Force Discipline Act, (1997) at 138-141. The author of the report, Brigadier the Honourable A R Abadee, RFD, was Deputy Judge Advocate General.

Mitchell and Voon, "Defence of the Indefensible? Reassessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia", (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 499 at 504.

Heard, "Military Law and the Charter of Rights", (1988) 11 Dalhousie Law Journal 514 at 525.

Note, "Military Justice and Art III", (1990) 103 Harvard Law Review 1909 at 1920-1921; with respect to Singapore Armed Forces Act Cap 295, 1985, see Kronenburg, Lie and Wong, "Civil Jurisdiction in the Military Courts: An Unnecessary Overlap?", (1993) 14 Singapore Law Review 320 at 324.

Australia, Ombudsman, The Australian Defence Force: Own motion investigations into how the Australian Defence Force responds to allegations of serious incidents and offences -- Review of Practices and Procedures, (1998).

Australian Parliament, Military Justice Procedures in the Australian Defence Force, (June 1999). See Australia, House of Representatives, Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 21 June 1999 at 6813-6816; Senate, Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 21 June 1999 at 5728-5731.

Australia, Senate, Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, The effectiveness of Australia's military justice system, (June 2005).

Australia, Senate, Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, The effectiveness of Australia's military justice system, (June 2005) at 80 [5.16].

Australia, Senate, Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, The effectiveness of Australia's military justice system, (June 2005) at 102 [5.95].

Including Brandy v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1995) 183 CLR 245 ; Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51 ; Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs (1996) 189 CLR 1 ; Re Wakim; ; Ex parte McNally (1999) 198 CLR 511 ; R v Hughes (2000) 202 CLR 535 .

cf Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 542 per Mason CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ, 554-562 per Brennan and Toohey JJ; Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, (1768), Bk III at 68, 103-106.

See Mitchell and Voon, "Defence of the Indefensible? Reassessing the Constitutional Validity of Military Service Tribunals in Australia", (1999) 27 Federal Law Review 499 at 509.

See generally, Squibb, The High Court of Chivalry, (1959); Clode, The Military Forces of the Crown, (1869).

See eg the Constitution, ss 58, 59, 60 and 74.

R v Richards; Ex parte Fitzpatrick and Browne (1955) 92 CLR 157 .

(1955) 92 CLR 157 at 167.

Discussed in Evans, "Fitzpatrick and Browne: Imprisonment by a House of Parliament", in Lee and Winterton (eds), Australian Constitutional Landmarks, (2003) 145 at 156. See also Egan v Willis (1998) 195 CLR 424 at 494 [136] and McHugh, "Does Chapter III of the Constitution Protect Substantive as Well as Procedural Rights?", (2001) 3 Constitutional Law and Policy Review 57 at 62.

cf Boilermakers' Case (1957) 95 CLR 529 at 545 ; [1957] AC 288 at 320.

R v Bernasconi (1915) 19 CLR 629 at 635; Porter v R; Ex parte Yee (1926) 37 CLR 432 at 440-442 446 and 447-449; Capital TV and Appliances Pty Ltd v Falconer (1971) 125 CLR 591 at 598 and 624-625.

cf Ruhani (2005) 222 CLR 489 at 550 [194].

See Eastman (1999) 200 CLR 322 at 378-383 [144]-[154].

(1942) 66 CLR 452 .

Starke J, McTiernan J and Williams J.

s 1(1).

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 477.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 482 and 487.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 468.

Joint reasons at [55].

(1945) 71 CLR 1 .

As to discussion in the Convention Debates, see the reasons of Gleeson CJ at [7]-[8] and of Callinan J at [237].

Toth v Quarles 350 US 11 (1955); O'Callahan v Parker 395 US 258 at 265 (1969). See discussion in Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 354-355 [147]-[152].

483 US 435 (1987).

483 US 435 (1987); cf reasons of Gleeson CJ at [9].

As in Dynes v Hoover 61 US 65 at 79 (1857).

Constitution, s 68.

Indian Constitution, Art 34. See also Arts 136(2) and 227(4) excluding the appellate and supervisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Notwithstanding these provisions, the Supreme Court has held that such provisions do not exclude judicial review of courts martial. See Ranjit Thakur v Union of India AIR 1987 SC 2386 ; S N Mukherjee v Union of India AIR 1990 SC 1984 .

Ram Sarup v Union of India AIR 1965 SC 247 ; cf Prithi Pal Singh v Union of India AIR 1982 SC 1413 .

APLA Ltd v Legal Services Commissioner (NSW) (2005) 224 CLR 322 at 352 [33], 409-411 [240]-[248], 452-454 [385]-[389]; cf Bennett v Commonwealth of Australia [2007] HCA 18 at [136].

In accordance with the Constitution, s 128.

See eg ss 51(vi), 68, 69, 114 and 119.

(1963) 109 CLR 665 . The case appears to have turned on the fact that the disciplinary penalty was not "final and binding" and hence did not constitute a purported exercise of the judicial power at all.

(1963) 109 CLR 665 at 670.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 456.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 545.

(1991) 172 CLR 460 at 474-475.

(1994) 181 CLR 18 at 26.

(2004) 220 CLR 308 .

Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 570; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 486; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 30.

Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 570.

Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 597. See also Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 498; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 35.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 579-590.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 587-590.

The same view was taken by Deane J in Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 490-493 and in Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 at 34.

Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 at 489-490 per Deane J.

(1991) 172 CLR 460 at 499.

(1994) 181 CLR 18 at 39.

cf Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 320-321 [34] per McHugh J.

Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 580; cf Mitchell and Voon, "Justice at the Sharp End -- Improving Australia's Military Justice System", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 396 at 407.

Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 352 [139]. One of the complaints that led to the American War of Independence was that George III had "affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power": Declaration of Independence, 1776.

Blackshield and Williams, Australian Constitutional Law and Theory, 4th ed (2006) at 1196.

Bernasconi (1915) 19 CLR 629 at 637 per Isaacs J; R v Archdall and Roskruge; Ex parte Carrigan and Brown (1928) 41 CLR 128 at 139-140 per Higgins J; Zarb v Kennedy (1968) 121 CLR 283 at 294 per Barwick CJ; Kingswell (1985) 159 CLR 264 at 276-277 per Gibbs CJ, Wilson and Dawson JJ; Re Colina (1999) 200 CLR 386 at 396 [24] per Gleeson CJ and Gummow J, 439 [136] per Callinan J.

R v Federal Court of Bankruptcy; Ex parte Lowenstein (1938) 59 CLR 556 at 581-582 per Dixon and Evatt JJ; Li Chia Hsing v Rankin (1978) 141 CLR 182 at 198 per Murphy J (see also at 193 per Gibbs J); Kingswell (1985) 159 CLR 264 at 307 per Deane J.

Re Colina (1999) 200 CLR 386 at 422-427 [95]-[104].

Garcia v National Australia Bank Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 395 at 417-418 [56].

See eg Graham Barclay Oysters Pty Ltd v Ryan (2002) 211 CLR 540 at 626 [238].

Queensland v The Commonwealth ("the Second Territorial Senators Case" ) (1977) 139 CLR 585 at 598-601; Shaw v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2003) 218 CLR 28 at 59 [87], 67 [110]; Singh v The Commonwealth (2004) 222 CLR 322 at 417 [265]; Ruhani (2005) 222 CLR 489 at 551 [196]; Ruddock v Taylor (2005) 222 CLR 612 at 659-660 [173].

Australian Agricultural Co v Federated Engine-Drivers and Firemen's Assn of Australasia (1913) 17 CLR 261 at 278 per Isaacs J; Evda Nominees Pty Ltd v Victoria (1984) 154 CLR 311 at 316 per Deane J; Stevens v Head (1993) 176 CLR 433 at 461-462 per Deane J, 464 per Gaudron J.

(1971) 122 CLR 353 at 378.

(1985) 159 CLR 264 at 318-319; Re Colina (1999) 200 CLR 386 at 422 [95].

The view of Dixon and Evatt JJ in Lowenstein (1938) 59 CLR 556 at 581-582. See also Murphy J in Beckwith v R (1976) 135 CLR 569 at 585; Li Chia Hsing (1978) 141 CLR 182 at 198.

(1985) 159 CLR 264 at 318-319.

See eg the Act, ss 35, 36A, 36B, 37, 40C, 43(3), 45, 46, 53(4), 54A, 56(4), 57.

The Act, ss 40D, 59(6) and (7).

The Act, s 61.

Based on the Act, s 33(a).

See New South Wales v Commonwealth (2006) 81 ALJR 34 at 165-166 [595]-[604], 252 [911]-[912]; 231 ALR 1 at 160-162, 274-275 where the relevant principles on severance are stated.

Joint reasons at [57].

(1945) 71 CLR 1 at 23.

(1945) 71 CLR 1 at 24.

Including Re Tracey (1989) 166 CLR 518 ; Re Nolan (1991) 172 CLR 460 ; Re Tyler (1994) 181 CLR 18 ; Hembury (1998) 193 CLR 641 at 694 and Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 .

Itself expressed in the Communist Party Case (1951) 83 CLR 1 at 193.

Kronenburg, Lie and Wong, "Civil Jurisdiction in the Military Courts: An Unnecessary Overlap?", (1993) 14 Singapore Law Review 320; Griffith, "Justice and the Army", (1947) 10 Modern Law Review 292 at 297-298; Heard, "Military Law and the Charter of Rights", (1988) 11 Dalhousie Law Journal 514; Note, "Military Justice and Art III", (1990) 103 Harvard Law Review 1909.

Australia, Senate, Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee, The effectiveness of Australia's military justice system, (June 2005) at 101-102 [5.92]-[5.96]. See also earlier Australian Parliament, Defence Force Disciplinary Code: Report of the 1973 Working Party, Parliamentary Paper No 48, (1974).

Joint reasons at [36]-[37], [51]-[52].

eg the Constitution, s 74.

Re Aird (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 352 [139].

[2006] HCATrans 026 at 3260; cf Head, "Calling Out the Troops -- Disturbing Trends and Unanswered Questions", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 479 at 487; Laing, "Call-Out the Guards -- Why Australia Should No Longer Fear the Deployment of Australian Troops on Home Soil", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 507.

Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 (Cth), s 11.

Wilson (1996) 189 CLR 1 .

(1996) 189 CLR 1 at 32-34. These included an inquiry into the Great War conducted in 1918 for the Executive by Griffith CJ: see Joyce, Samuel Walker Griffith, (1984) at 354.

eg in Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51 ; Wilson (1996) 189 CLR 1 ; Re Wakim (1999) 198 CLR 511 .

Joint reasons at [48].

[2007] HCA 23 at [94].

Joint reasons at [50].

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 466.

See above these reasons at [177].

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 467.

Dynes 61 US 65 (1857).

Joint reasons at [50]-[52].

Coutts v The Commonwealth (1985) 157 CLR 91 at 109 per Deane J; cf White, "The Executive and the Military", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 438 at 442-444.

Joint reasons at [48].

See eg Grain Pool of Western Australia v Commonwealth (2000) 202 CLR 479 at 522-523 [111]-[112].

Plaintiff S 157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476 at 513-514 [103]-[104].

cf Hamdan v Rumsfeld 165 L Ed 2d 723 (2006). See also Military Commissions Act of 2006 (US), §2, and 10 USC Ch 47A, §948i, §948j, §949d, §949m(a), §950f, §950g, inserted by that Act.

cf Albarran [2007] HCA 23 at [58]-[67].

cf R v Davison (1954) 90 CLR 353 at 380-381.

Joint reasons at [58].

Joint reasons at [58]; cf Ruhani (2005) 222 CLR 489 at 553 [205].

(1999) 199 CLR 462 .

(2003) 218 CLR 28 .

Reasons of Gleeson CJ at [19]-[21]; joint reasons at [73]-[75].

Joint reasons at [76].

(2000) 204 CLR 82 at 141 [163].

See eg amendments made to the Defence Instructions (General) on 17 February 1999, List B -- Issue No PERS B/5/99.

cf Mitchell and Voon, "Justice at the Sharp End -- Improving Australia's Military Justice System", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 396 at 418.

Sweden, Germany, Austria and Denmark have abolished their courts martial systems. See Kilimnik, "Germany's Army after Reunification: The Merging of the Nationale Volksarmee Into the Bundeswehr, 1990-1994", (1994) 145 Military Law Review 113 at 131-133; Lindeblad, "Swedish Military Jurisdiction", (1963) 19 Military Law Review 123 at 126; cf Sherman, "Military Justice Without Military Control", (1973) 82 Yale Law Journal 1398 at 1398, 1411-1415.

Sherman, "Military Justice Without Military Control", (1973) 82 Yale Law Journal 1398 at 1415.

Such as immediately followed the decisions in British Imperial Oil Co Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation (1925) 35 CLR 422 , the Boilermakers' Case in 1956, and Re Wakim (1999) 198 CLR 511 (see eg Hughes (2000) 202 CLR 535 ); cf Groves, "The Civilianisation of Australian Military Law", (2005) 28 University of New South Wales Law Journal 364 at 375 citing R v Pinney (1832) 5 Car & P 254 [ 172 ER 962 ].

See Re Aird; ; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308 at 359 [163] per Callinan and Heydon JJ.

The Jervis Bay Territory is a part of the Australian Capital Territory ("the ACT"), having been annexed in 1915 to provide the ACT with access to the sea. The agreement for the land to be ceded by New South Wales to the Commonwealth to incorporate it into the ACT was ratified by the Seat of Government Surrender Act 1915 (NSW) and the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 (Cth). Section 4A of the latter provides that the laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply in the Jervis Bay Territory.

(1992) 176 CLR 1 at 28.

(2006) 80 ALJR 1399 ; 228 ALR 447 .

(2006) 80 ALJR 1399 at 1422-1423 [116]; 228 ALR 447 at 476.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 .

s 3.

s 7.

s 3.

s 24.

s 26.

s 33.

s 47C.

s 59.

Primarily the Criminal Code 2002 (ACT) and the Crimes Act 1900 (ACT).

Sections 104, 107 and 108 and reg 44 of the Defence Force Discipline Regulations 1985 (Cth).

s 68(1).

s 70.

The Defence (Personnel) Regulations 2002 (Cth), reg 4, Sch 1 sets out the corresponding ranks in the ADF. For example, the equivalent of the rank of Major in the Army is the rank of Lieutenant Commander in the Navy or Squadron Leader in the Air Force.

s 106.

ss 114, 117, 119.

Sched 2.

s 134.

ss 114(2), 119.

s 115.

s 119.

s 103(1)(d).

ss 188FB and 188GF.

s 127.

ss 67, 129 and Sch 2.

s 103(1)(c).

Section 10 of the Act and ss 13.1-13.6 of the Criminal Code (Cth).

s 146.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 554-563.

Re Aird; ; Ex parte Alpert (2004) 220 CLR 308 .

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 563 per Brennan and Toohey JJ.

R v Bevan; Ex parte Elias and Gordon (1942) 66 CLR 452 .

R v Cox; Ex parte Smith (1945) 71 CLR 1 .

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 564 per Brennan and Toohey JJ.

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 572-573 per Brennan and Toohey JJ.

The Constitution of the United States of America makes different provision. Although the President is, by virtue of Art II, §2, cl 1, Commander in Chief, power "[t]o declare War ... and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water" (Art I, §8, cl 11), "[t]o raise and support Armies" (Art I, §8, cl 12), "[t]o define and punish ... Offenses against the Law of Nations" (Art I, §8, cl 10), and "[t]o make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces" (Art I, §8, cl 14) are vested in Congress. In Hamdan v Rumsfeld 165 L Ed 2d 723 at 781 (2006), Kennedy J (Souter, Ginsburg and Breyer JJ relevantly concurring) said:

Trial by military commission raises separation-of-powers concerns of the highest order. Located within a single branch, these courts carry the risk that offenses will be defined, prosecuted, and adjudicated by executive officials without independent review. Cf Loving v United States, 517 US 748 , 756-758, 760 (1996). Concentration of power puts personal liberty in peril of arbitrary action by officials, an incursion the Constitution's three-part system is designed to avoid. It is imperative, then, that when military tribunals are established, full and proper authority exists for the Presidential directive.

(1942) 66 CLR 452 at 467-468. Note that his Honour's reference to s 69 in that passage is in all likelihood a typographical error and should be a reference to s 68.

Official Record of the Debates of the Australasian Federal Convention, (Melbourne), 10 March 1898 at 2249-2264.

The raising and granting, or withholding, of funds for military purposes has been the means via which the Parliament has exercised control over the military since the Bill of Rights in 1689.

At [205]-[210].

At [233]-[238].

(1989) 166 CLR 518 at 554-563.

Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 573.

Re Tracey; ; Ex parte Ryan (1989) 166 CLR 518 at 572.